Question of Police Brutality - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 9 Words: 2780 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2019/04/08 Category Society Essay Level High school Tags: Police Brutality Essay Did you like this example? Police Brutality: A Bitter Outcome Proceeding the Relationship Between Frustrations and Aggression This article examines the nature and scope of police brutality and the various strategies tried to reduce and punish police misconduct in the USA. The extent of this research proposal is not for the uprise of any rebellion of sort, yet it is to take notice to the inequalities and social injustices that have been occurring for decadents. Beaten, coerced, tortured, and even murdered all in the name of solidifying the dysfunctional institutions in which the U.S. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Question of Police Brutality" essay for you Create order founded. The police brutality phenomena, here in America, has been in existence for centuries dating as far back to the Middle Passage as the formidable historical features of American policing which are: Institutional enslavement and the control of minorities. The plantations overseer, slave patrols, and night watches were American societys policing institutions; and the reason for the mentioning of these policing institutions is to explore and exploit the similarities between the slave patrols and modern American policing. Based on published articles, African- Americans have been an adversary to the inequalities of white supremacy that has led to the marginalization, oppression, as well as disproportionality and disparities effective on the African- Americans. To add to this claim, we will examine and explore the history of police brutality. In addition, we will examine how race and racism may shape such discourse†police brutality and how the public generally perceives the police. Lastly, we will examine and analyze the psychological causality of police brutality; and with such analysis facilitate the framework for an approach as an interventional implementation into policy for DCs governance. The History of Police Brutality Traced to a multitude of historical, legal, and political- economic conditions is the birth and development of American police. Slave patrols and Night Watches are now the modern police departments, both designed to control the behaviors of the minorities. The formidable historic features of American society are the institution of slavery and the control of minorities that shaped early policing. Moreover, policing was not the only social institution enmeshed in slavery, whereas slavery has institutionalized in American economics and legal order. For instance, Virginia, where more than 130 slave statutes between 1689 and 1865 enacted (Kappeler, 2018). Every occurrence of police brutality is, on one level, a tactical response as a contemporary form of White domination (Harris, 1998) where the legacy of racism and slavery did not end after the Civil War. In all actuality, extreme violence towards African Americans and other racial minorities had become worse during the reconstruction era (Kappeler, 2013). In the 1860s, the rise of vigilante groups had given way where the most infamous American vigilante group, the Ku Klux Klan notorious for their assaults and lynching Blacks for transgressions that were not crimes (Kappeler, 2018). These events occurred for an extended duration whereas minorities were beaten, coerced, and hung (Kappeler, 2018). Some of these behaviors are prevalent within the modern day American policing and the U. S. criminal justice system (Chaney et al., 2014; Chaney et al., 2014; Kappeler, 2018). Race and Racism Leads to Police Brutality and Shape Public Perceptions of Police Racism is a system where it has been fed from generation to generation as its effects are to staining and tainting the innocent and tranquil minds. According to Chaney (2013), race and racism have led to police brutality (Chaney et al., 2013; Chaney et al., 2014). The mind controls the body, moreover, the stereotypes, prejudices, and discrimination are all aspects of where perspectives are exemplified through behavior (Jones et al., 2014). Chaney (2013) cites Myrdal (1944) presentation of the historical legacy between Black and law enforcement stating: The average Southern policeman is a promoted poor White with a legal sanctionto use a weapon. His social heritage has taught him to despise the Negroes, and he has had little education which could have changed him. The result is that probably no group of Whites in America have a lower opinion of the Negro people and are more fixed in their views than Southern policeman (Chaney et al., 2013; Myrdal, 1944, pp. 540541). The stereotypical perceptions and perspectives lead to discriminatory and prejudicial behaviors where these notions are being learned, therefore marking that racism is of learned behavior (Jones et al., 2014). As mentioned, racism is a system that starts with stereotypes, that leads to discrimination, that leads to prejudices, which leads to racist perspectives and lifestyles (Jones et al., 2014). In the following section we will discuss the premises of the applicable nature of psychodynamic theory towards the explaining of prejudices where humans have the disposition to be hostile, particularly in the face of real or perceived danger. Hostility arises from concerns with economic or material advantages, fear and defensiveness, and the need for prideful self-aggrandizement as these concerns suit the eccentric performance: lethal policing as American policing. When Rodney King endured a brutal beating via the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) on March 3rd, 1991, he instantly came to be the face of American police brutality. This atonement was the reality for the generally accepted notion by most Blacks of this pervasive persistent problem police brutality. David Bayleys Getting Serious about Police Brutality illustrates a New York Times- CBS poll where 51 % of the public, white or black, believed that police were tougher on Blacks than Whites (Bayley, 1995), and to the contrary Chaney (2013) findings from the 2001 Race, Crime, and Public Opinion Survey conclude that for the 1,988 participants which involved 978 non- Hispanic Whites and 1,010 Blacks, expressed a divide in attitudes between Blacks and Whites, whereas 38% of Whites and 89% of Blacks viewed the criminal justice system as being bias towards Blacks (Chaney et al., 2013). Furthermore, 8% of Blacks and 56% of whites perceive the criminal justice system as fairly treating Blacks (Chaney et al., 2013). This is the probability of the police performance being overwhelmingly approved by the dominant group †White domination.White supremacy (Chaney et al. 2013). Nonetheless, police brutality is an issue as David Bayleys Getting Serious about Police Brutality illustrates, here the remarks of one experienced chief of police when asked whether his force had a problem with brutality, he stated, Every force has a problem with brutality (Bayley, 1995). His statement neither negates nor confirm the phenomenon of police brutality as an issue, but it does infer that the phenomena police brutalitys prevalence consists nationally, here in the U. S. The National Police Misconduct Statistics and Reporting Project (NPMSRP) used by Chaney (2013) yielded results that expressed its findings of the 5,986 reports of misconduct, 382 fatalities linked to misconduct, settlements and judgments that totaled $347,455,000, and 33 % of misconduct cases that went through to convictions and 64 % of misconduct cases that received prison sentences (Chaney et al., 2013) where the NPMSRP were compiled between the months of April 2009 and June 2010. The NPMSRP reveal that the majority of individuals have a negative view of law enforcement. In particular, most had a strong contempt for members of law enforcement, are suspicious of them, or see them as perpetrators of police brutality (Chaney et al., 2013). It shouldnt be a crime just for being Black, nor is it a crime to have faulty perceptions of the indentured servants that have sworn to protect and service our (Black) communities; yet these perceptions should not be rooted because of interventional implications of implementing policies to the dysfunctional American policing that would give way to just treatment and fairness to all citizens. The Psychological Causality of Police Brutality There are three theories pertaining to police misconduct †as these theories of police behavior are sociological, psychological, and organizational theory (Maguire et al., 2015). Here we will examine police brutality by applying the theoretical approaches as sociological, psychological, and organizational theories. Proposed by the known psychologist, Sigmund Freud, states that psychological processes represent flows of psychic energy that are powered by two basic motivations that shape all of the human behavior: the life instinct (Eros) and the death distinct (Thanatos) (Jones et al., 2014). Experiences from childhood and conflict from childhood are influential to the combination of these forces to determine individualistic personality and, ultimately, her/ his biases towards different people (Jones et al, 2014). There are three premises to the applicable nature of psychodynamic theory towards the explaining of prejudices. Those premises are as follows: 1). It assumes that humans have the disposition to be hostile, particularly in the face of real or perceived danger. Hostility arises from concerns with economic or material advantages, fear and defensiveness, and the need for prideful self-aggrandizement; 2). It assumes that at birth, humans seek comfort, love, and nurturance. However, as they fail to receive these in sufficient degree, they become frustrated, and this frustration activates their latent hostility; and 3). It assumes that only some people those whose basic needs are not readily met in other ways become prejudiced (Jones et al., 2014). Prejudice(s) is/ are viewed as an abnormality. Freud attributed that the basis of aggression to an expression of the death instinct, a factor that is individualistic and rises within an individual, suggested that aggression as a stimulant being a resolution to the external causes that lead to frustration (Jones et al., 2014). An influential group of researchers had adapted some of Freuds ideas to develop a new theory of aggression. Their frustration-aggression hypothesis explains that frustration causes aggression and all aggression can be traced back to some form of frustration (Jones et al., 2014). The same researchers also gave recognition to the ideology of people not being able to express aggression (Jones et al., 2014). Instances being, an officer not being able to meet a certain quota on the job frustrating hopes for future employment. Nevertheless, you would not act out against an innocent bystander within your community, so wanting to sustain future employment and possible promotion will cause you to suppress your desire to act out against an innocent bystander, and this causes displacement. At times police become frustrated with the rising of crime within their community. The frustration of controlling the dispersion and diffusion of crime leads to aggressive/ excessive force used on even the minor of incidences and offenses. Note: As mentioned, the nature and scope of police brutality phenomena, here in America, has been in existence for centuries dating as far back to the Middle Passage where the formidable historical features of American policing are: Institutional enslavement and the control of minorities. Therefore, the system of policing is a tactical response as a contemporary form of White domination (Harris, 1998) where the legacy of racism and slavery are embedded. Moreover, as it is mentioned, because of the White domination that whenever the Blacks have prosperity and the Whites are having a declination in economics then those Whites are more aggressive towards the Blacks (Chaney et al., 2014; Jones et al., 2014). As a result, there were more lynching and murders to shooting and killings dealt from the hands of the white man directed upon the Blacks (Chaney et al., 2014; Jones et al., 2014), as well inequalities of white supremacy leading to marginalization, oppression, as well disproportional ity and disparities effective on the African- Americans (Chaney et al., 2014; Jones et al., 2014). Methods The multifaceted research design of the phenomenon police brutality in American policing will incorporate a case study approach that will allow the intensive study of a given policy, issue, and/ or community in social context. By employing a historical approach coped with the case study to police brutality, the historical roots of this present day problem will become apparent, as we examine the brutal practices of plantation overseers and night watchmen and in the slaveholding south. As well, the data collected will be both quantitative and qualitative, therefore taking into consideration that, in this research proposal because most police precincts dont explicitly collect data on the use of force, and that even when the data is hidden in plain view within police narrative accounts of interactions with civilians, it is exceedingly difficult to extract. Data on officer-involved shootings are extremely rare; and the data that are available is most frequently compiled by grassroots orga nizations, nonprofits, or media sources. Fortunately, there are multiple independent researchers, journalists, and the federal government itself (Banks et al. 2015) which have compiled a virtually comprehensive record of civilians recently killed by U.S. police. Nonetheless, the most common data retrieval sources are Internet searches and Web-based news alerts, but these sources too have also relied on public record requests and required enlisting the services of a large number of people. The striving of such projects, fatalencounters.org (FE), syndicates methods with earnest out- of- sample testing to maintain an exhaustive, publicly downloadable record of police killings, currently going back to 2000 (Chaney et al., 2013; Chaney et al., 2014; Hirsch? ¬?eld, 2015). Other scholars prior research was used in such ways as using prior interventional research as a basis for conducting their existing research. Chaney (2013) utilized the National Police Misconduct Statistics and Reporting Project (NPMSRP) to respond to questions as what do findings from the NPMSRP suggest about the rate of police brutality in America? and how do individuals perceive the police department and what implications do these perceptions hold for Black men in America? as this research design is an exploratory case study that are case studies performed before implementing a large-scale investigation. Their basic function is to help identify questions and select types of measurement prior to the main investigation. Surveys and interviews conducted on members of a community that police brutality has harmed is an excellent practice used by prior researchers and would be best suited for this type of research. Here are a few of the databases that will be beneficial to the extent of the investigation and research of police brutality: Fatalencounters.org (FE), syndicates methods with earnest out- of- sample testing to maintain an exhaustive, publicly downloadable record of police killings, currently going back to 2000, United States Department of Labor (2018). Occupational Employment and Wages. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Retrieved from: https://www.bls.gov/ooh/protective-service/police-and-detectives.htm. 2018,   The National Police Misconduct Statistics and Reporting Project (NPMSRP), and U. S. Police Shooting Database (USPSD) Implications for Criminal Justice The implications of this proposed research will inherently impact the incidences of police brutality as it will bring awareness to the public of the incidences of police brutality. The desired result is to protect the safety of communities at harm, and communicate as well promote the need for reform to American Policing: Criminal Justice. Conclusion An expected outcome is to facilitating the framework for an approach as an interventional implementation into policy for DCs governance. Police brutality isnt a new phenomenon (Chaney et al., 2013). In order to succeed in the future, we must as a people become educated about past events in hopes of no longer experiencing such events and place ourselves into better positions of succession. There are many reasons why legislatures impose so few restrictions on the consequential exercise of lethal policing: American policing. As these lethal policing patterns have been entrenched in the American traditions of governance (Chaney et al., 2013; Chaney et al., 2014; Hirscheld, 2015). Over time, police changed from a patronage system to a professional model (Chaney et al., 2013; Chaney et al., 2014; Hirscheld, 2015). This evolution has transferred police policy authority not to lawmakers but to police themselves (Chaney et al., 2013; Chaney et al., 2014; Hirscheld, 2015) where the system s tifles reform (Chaney et al., 2013; Chaney et al., 2014; Hirscheld, 2015). The courts and legislators create the parameters for permissible deadly force, but specific guidelines and procedures on the subject of deadly force are said to be reputable and enforced only by police departments (Chaney et al., 2013; Chaney et al., 2014; Hirscheld, 2015) where again this system stifles reform (Chaney et al., 2013; Chaney et al., 2014; Hirscheld, 2015). Police offcials, along with prosecutors whose jobs require police cooperation, regulate whether a specific act of deadly force sullied any rules or laws. Naturally, protocols that prioritize the protection of themselves and their discretionary authority are chosen by police. A policy that is an alternative that prioritizes protecting life would likely not permit police to use excessive/ deadly force. The fact that police brutality is deeply rooted and concealed in American history, culture, and society doesnt mean that they cannot be greatly reduced (Chaney et al., 2013; Chaney et al., 2014; Hirscheld, 2015). Some police departments are heeding calls for reform on their own (Chaney et al., 2013; Chaney et al., 2014). But systemic, large-scale problems require the broad, interventionist solutions expense of our (researchers) prior approaches is periodic unrest, highly expensive taxpayer-funded lawsuit settlements, and reduced public cooperation with the police reduced (Chaney et al., 2013; Chaney et al., 2014; Hirscheld, 2015). Chaney (2013; 2014) expresses that Two-thirds of Americans register low levels of satisfaction with how well police departments hold their officers accountable for misconduct (Chaney et al., 2013; Chaney et al., 2014). Hopefully, centralized government actors will get the message and act in the public interest. Appreciations to emergent national data because now police dependence on deadly force is finally questionable.

Essay on Book Summary of the Bible Among the Myths

Introduction Author John N. Oswalt begins The Bible Among the Myths: Unique Revelation or Just Ancient Literature? with a concise and well-written introduction that whets the reader’s appetite, compelling one to continue reading. He begins by informing the reader that his novel has been in the works dating all of the way back to the 1960s, when he attended the Asbury Theological Seminary. Oswalt quickly points out that one of the main points that the book will focus on is determining if â€Å"the religion of the Old Testament [is] essentially similar to, or essentially different from, the religions of its neighbors.†1 Oswalt is swift to acknowledge a major difference between the Old Testament and the religions of the Israelites Near†¦show more content†¦Is it Appropriate to Classify the Bible as Myth? In this particular section, Oswalt begins by arguing that you cannot rationalize calling the Bible a myth until you have a clear definition of the word â€Å" myth.† He continues by pointing out how difficult it is to actually define what a â€Å"myth† is. Oswalt emphasizes that â€Å"Rogerson goes so far as to say that there are so many differences in opinion on the subject that no one definition is possible.†4 The definitions for the word â€Å"myth† can be divided into two distinct categories: historical-philosophical and the phenomenological, or descriptive. Regardless of the analysis of the word â€Å"myth† and its various meanings, Oswalt concludes that Bible is definitely not a myth in way, shape, form, or fashion. He writes, â€Å"Rather it is a rehearsal of the nonrepeatable acts of God in identifiable time and in concert with human beings. Its purpose is to provoke human choices and behavior through the medium of memory.†5 Continuity: The Basis of Mythical Thinking Continuity as the Ruling Concept in Myth Myths are distinctive because of their continuity. Every aspect of a myth co-exists. They are intertwined, and there is no distinction between humanity, nature, and the deity. One of the interesting aspects of myths is that they lack barriers, and as a consequence, humans can actually participate in the nature and in the divine. Furthermore, symbols are reality. Everything is connected, and the lines areShow MoreRelatedEssay about Book Summary The Bible Among the Myths2835 Words   |  12 Pagesï » ¿ INTRODUCTION The book opens with an introduction comparing the study of the Old Testament and the other religions and cultures of other peoples from the Ancient Near East. 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Someone Who Has Had Influenced My in My Life. Free Essays

There are many things which influence on me and there are many people who give me lessons, smiling and sadness. The person who has influenced me the most is my mother, but today, I will not write about her but my best friend who is being with me after my mother. We have been friends for more than 10 years. We will write a custom essay sample on Someone Who Has Had Influenced My in My Life. or any similar topic only for you Order Now We are in the same class during primary school but when we entered secondary school, we got separated. Since then I became very lazy and cannot focus in studies. I got bad result during my form3 test and when she knew it, she helps me to do revision everyday during form4 and form5 but it is too late. I got only 5A’s in my spm and I am unable to get into the Poly I want which is NYP. The only way to study in Singapore is –STPM, so I got into form6. One week later, she joined form6 too as she felt that form6 is more challenging. Fortunately we got into same class and we became deskmate, she taught me and guided me during every lesson. We used to go to library every day after school and attend tuition class. Hard works pay off, when I got my results, I felt so happy although it is not the best, but is more than I expect. I really thanks my best friend as she helps me a lot and influences me a lot, she was satisfied with her results too and we are now applying every university we wish to get. Although the chance we got it is small but â€Å"never try never know†, that is what my mom told me. How to cite Someone Who Has Had Influenced My in My Life., Essay examples

Claude MckayS If We Must Die Essay free essay sample

Claude Mckay`S? If We Must Die? Essay, Research Paper Poetry # 8211 ; Claude McKay # 8220 ; If We Must Die # 8221 ; One of the most influential authors of the Harlem Renaissance was Jamaican born Claude McKay, who was a political militant, a novelist, an litterateur and a poet. Claude McKay was cognizant of how to maintain his name systematically in mainstream civilization by composing for that audience. Although in McKay # 8217 ; s arsenal he possessed powerful verse forms. The book that included such radical poesy is Harlem Shadows. His 1922 book of verse forms, Harlem Shadows, Barros acknowledged that this verse form was said by many to hold inaugurated the Harlem Renaissance. Throughout McKay # 8217 ; s composing calling he used a batch of idiom and African American slang in his authorship, which was instead controversial at the clip. Writing in dialect wasn # 8217 ; t considered proper for composing formal literature. For this paper I chose the verse form # 8220 ; If We Must Die # 8221 ; , one of his strongest political verse form included in Harlem Shadows. The capable affair that McKay writes about is confrontational. Even if McKay used classical poesy techniques to compose # 8220 ; If We Must Die # 8221 ; . McKay used the poesy technique of the sonnet by utilizing the 13 lines and 1 last line in the terminal. In # 8220 ; If We Must Die # 8221 ; McKay uses rimes, and metaphors to tie in and body the verse form. Using these techniques the audience can place with the author and the verse form itself. The verse form at first seems to hold been written for a black audience but so it grew enormously for a wider cosmopolitan audience. This poem radius to anyone and everyone who was being oppressed or in a state of affairs that they weren # 8217 ; t in control of. This verse form was for anyone who is or was put to decease. This verse form showed that everyone deserves a baronial decease, a decease of award and regard non to be beaten and treated like an animate being but like a human being. # 8220 ; If We Must Die # 8221 ; was foremost published in the Liberator in 1919. Then in his digest of poesy Harlem Shadows in 1922. Where already the universe war had ended. It was one of the really first poems that initiated the tone, capable and affair of the Harlem Renaissance. The verse form is radical, it # 8217 ; s the type of verse form that makes people believe and take action. He made the reader feel of import and recognized the value of a human life. McKay believed portion of the poets occupation is to politically inform the heads of people. Leading to the influence of such people as Amiri Baraka, get downing the Black Arts Movement. The verse form itself is a proof, acknowledgment of the value of a human life. In the first line of the sonnet # 8220 ; If we must decease, allow it non be like pigs # 8221 ; . If we as worlds die in whatever state of affairs arises, allow it non be like an animate being, inhumane, without a name and unjust. # 8220 ; If we must decease, O let us nobly die # 8221 ; , and eventhough the individual might be by far outnumbered, beaten and maimed non to sit there and take the penalty. That there last breaths is one of triumph because the individual neer stopped contending back. Erasing the thought of inactive opposition which made such people like Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr. known for. Although the verse form had a cosmopolitan entreaty, McKay published this verse form through one of the fiercest times for African Americans. There were terrible racial jobs with Blacks and Whites through out triping force. In 1919 they # 8217 ; re where infinite race public violences in Harlem and all over the United States. This verse form could hold even fanned the fire that the race public violences started. This poem itself moved people to stand up for themselves and I don # 8217 ; t uncertainty that it did. This verse form can easy be read today and entreaty to today # 8217 ; s society. It seems that there will ever be an laden group, that is something we can # 8217 ; t flight from. If the verse form # 8220 ; If We Must Die # 8221 ; were read today, I feel it would travel countless people into action. Particularly now where there are a batch of jobs with the New York City police section. The Police department’s utilizing tactics of racial profiling, infinite shots, and deceases of immature African American and Latino work forces. No affair what decennary we live in, same regulations seem to use. Their will ever be mindless violent deaths, and the occupation of the poet is to utilize what is traveling on in their environment and talk out against it. I feel a poet is a radical, merely like McKay stated that # 8220 ; portion of the poets occupation is to politically inform the heads of people. # 8221 ; To do people think and even act upon their actions. Both to motivate and alter what is in society. To revolutionise their heads, and assist people non be afraid to talk out. # 8220 ; If We Must Die # 8221 ; was besides # 8220 ; popularized as a conflict call by Winston Churchill in the European battle against fascism. # 8221 ; ( Barros ) Ironically, # 8220 ; If We Must Die # 8221 ; had been written as a hawkish response to a Harlem race public violence some twenty old ages earlier. During a period when # 8220 ; McKay himself wouldn # 8217 ; Ts have been caught dead back uping a war between capitalist, nationalist states. # 8221 ; ( Barros ) # 8220 ; It was during those yearss that the sonnet, # 8220 ; If We Must Die # 8221 ; , exploded out of me. And for it the Negro people nem con hailed me as a poet. Indeed, that one expansive effusion is their exclusive criterion of measuring my poesy. It was the lone verse form I of all time read to the members of my crew. # 8211 ; Even the 4th server # 8211 ; who was the giddiest and most irresponsible of the batch, with all his motivations and gestures colored by a queerly acute signifier of satyriasis # 8211 ; even he really cried. # 8221 ; Eventhough Pearson # 8217 ; s Magazine had its offices in the same edifice as the Liberator. Frank Harris the editor of Pearson # 8217 ; s Magazine wanted to print # 8220 ; If We Must Die # 8221 ; in his magazine but McKay had already shown it to the Liberator and was accepted, it was being included in the Liberator foremost. Although Frank Harris and Claude McKay were friends it seems McKay went to the Liberator foremost because the Liberator has an African American entreaty and a broad reading audience. Which seemed to be McKay # 8217 ; s first purpose and mark audience with # 8220 ; If We Must Die # 8221 ; . Claude McKay is one of my favourite poets and any reader could understand why. His poesy speaks to a battalion, and this verse form # 8220 ; If We Must Die # 8221 ; made the reader, a human being feel of import. Alternatively of seeing yourself as lower than soil, accommodating the head of the laden and non contending back. We must non sit around while awful things happen in our society. If we want a alteration we have to make it ourselves. # 8220 ; Pressed to the wall, deceasing, but contending back. # 8221 ; If We Must Die If we must decease, allow it non be like pigs Hunted and penned in an black topographic point, While unit of ammunition us bark the mad and hungry Canis familiariss, Making their mock at our accurst batch. If we must decease, O let us nobly die, So that our cherished blood may non be shed In vain ; so even the monsters we defy Shall be constrained to honour us though dead! O kinsmen! we must run into the common enemy! Though far outnumbered allow us demo us weather, And for their 1000 blows cover one coup de grace! What though before us lies the unfastened grave? Like work forces we # 8217 ; ll face the homicidal, cowardly battalion, Pressed to the wall, deceasing, but contending back! 454 Arno # 8220 ; A long manner place # 8221 ; [ 1937 ] New York Times 1969 Barros, Paul De # 8220 ; The Loud Music Of life # 8217 ; : Representations of Jazz In the Novels of Claude McKay. # 8221 ; Antioch Review, Summer 1999. Claude McKay ( 1890-1948 ) March 26, 2000